1. Preliminaries to translation as a process Basic definitions – Inter-semiotic translation – Intralingual translation – Interlingual translation 2 Preliminaries to translation as a product – Degrees of freedom in translation – Interlinear translation – Literal translation – Free translation – Communicative translation – From interlinear to free translation – Equivalence and translation loss – Equivalence – Translation loss – Translation by omission – Translation by addition – Controlling translation loss 3 Cultural transposition Basic principles – Exoticism – Calque – Cultural transplantation – Cultural borrowing – Communicative translation – Transliterating names 4. Compensation Basic principles – Categories of compensation 5. Denotative meaning and translation issues Denotative meaning – Synonymy – Hyperonymy-hyponymy – Particularizing translation and generalizing translation – Partially overlapping translation – Semantic repetition in Arabic – Other forms of parallelism 6. Connotative meaning and translation issues Basic principles – Attitudinal meaning – Associative meaning – Affective meaning – Allusive meaning – Collocation and collocative meaning – Reflected meaning – Other types of connotative meaning 7. Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues in translation The phonic/graphic level – Alliteration, assonance, and rhyme – Onomatopoeia – The prosodic level – Rudiments of English and Arabic versification – English – Arabic – Translating Arabic verse 8. Grammatical issues in translation – Introduction – The grammatical level – Words – Grammatical arrangement – Morphological repetition – Pattern repetition – Root repetition – Suffix repetition – Lexical repetition – Lexical item repetition – Phrase repetition